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* There was no difference found in impact forces between two shod conditions where one type of shoe provided 50% more cushioning than the control shoe<ref name="ClarkeFrederick2008"/>.
* A study of 93 runners that compared three hardness shoes (40, 52, & 65 Shore) showed that the softer shoes had the greatest impact peak<ref name="Garcia AznarBaltich2015"/>. Based on my measurements of running shoes, the range of firmness in this test goes from somewhat soft to remarkably firm. The impact ranged from 1.70x Body Weight (BW) for the hardest shoe, to 1.64x BW for the medium and 1.54x BW for the hardest. The impact was measured using a force plate and used the impact peak, not the active peak (see diagram above) which is why the impact is much lower than other studies that report 2.0-2.4x BW. The study found that running increased their joint stiffness in the softer shoes, which may be the cause of the greater impact.
* Highly cushioned Minimax shoes and conventional shoes may result in more knee stress than minimalist shoes<ref name="Sinclair-2016"/>. The study looked at 20 male runners and measured impact with a pressure plate while filming the leg movement. The leg movement was then used to estimate knee stress based on a model that used knee movement and angle. The Minimax shoes were Hoka, the minimalist shoes were Vibram FiveFingers, but the conventional shoes were not specified. The runners were not familiar with the non-traditional shoes, and only had 5 minutes familiarization. The study also found greater contact forces in the non-minimalist shoes.
* Runners who normally run in shoes have greater impact forces when running barefoot, but this is reversed with as a runner becomes adapted to being barefoot<ref name="Robbins-1990"/><ref name="Divert-2005"/><ref name="Robbins-1987"/>.
* In a study somewhat related to shoes and impact, a study looked at impact and running surface and found there were not impact differences between concrete, synthetic track, natural grass, and a treadmill<ref name="FuFang2015"/>. The study used a pressure sensor in the shoe's insole and an accelerometer attached to the Tibia, with the runners wearing non-cushioned, minimalist shoes.
As noted above, the interaction of impact and injury rates is unclear.
=Running Shoes & Pronation Control=
* A study of 12 male runners looked at foot strike for shoes with 0mm, 4mm, and 8mm of drop, plus barefoot<ref name="ChambonDelattre2013"/>. The barefoot condition was midfoot strike rather than rear foot strike in the shoes. The different drop conditions were not significantly different, though there was a trend towards more rear foot strike with the 8mm drop than with 0mm and 4mm drops.
* A drop of 15mm or 7.5mm did not produce a significant reduction in Achilles tendon stress<ref name="Dixon-1998"/>.
* A study comparing the minimal Vibram FiveFingers with Hoka Minimax shoes suggests there may be more Achilles tendon stress in minimal shoes<ref name="SinclairRichards2015"/>. However, the group size was small (n=12), and there's no indication that the runners had experience with either type of footwear.
=Running Shoes & Injury Rates =
Several studies have found there is no evidence to support the idea that running shoes can reduce injury rates<ref name="RichardsMagin2009"/><ref name="van Gent-2007"/><ref name="van Mechelen-1992"/>.
** The neutral runners had higher levels of pain in the neutral shoe than the stability shoe. The pronating runners had higher levels of pain in the stability shoe than the neutral shoe. This is the opposite of most recommendations for shoe and foot type.
** Note that while the overall sample size was reasonable (81), each individual subgroup was quite small (5 to 18 runners) and variation within subgroup of results was large. The subgroups also varied significantly in weight, BMI, age, and years of running experience.
* An intriguing study suggests of 264 runners preparing for a marathon found that runners who swapped between multiple shoes had lower injury rates than those who only used a single pair at a time<ref name="MalisouxRamesh2015"/>. However, the data is self-reported and there were other differences between the groups, such as the multiple shoe runners having run more half-marathons than the single shoe group.
=Shoes and Running Economy=
''Main article: [[The Science of Running Economy]]''
<ref name="HamillRussell2011">Joseph Hamill, Elizabeth M. Russell, Allison H. Gruber, Ross Miller, Impact characteristics in shod and barefoot running, Footwear Science, volume 3, issue 1, 2011, pages 33–40, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1942-4280 1942-4280], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2010.542187 10.1080/19424280.2010.542187]</ref>
<ref name="Garcia AznarBaltich2015">Jose Manuel Garcia Aznar, Jennifer Baltich, Christian Maurer, Benno M. Nigg, Increased Vertical Impact Forces and Altered Running Mechanics with Softer Midsole Shoes, PLOS ONE, volume 10, issue 4, 2015, pages e0125196, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203 1932-6203], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125196 10.1371/journal.pone.0125196]</ref>
<ref name="SinclairRichards2015">J. Sinclair, J. Richards, H. Shore, Effects of minimalist and maximalist footwear on Achilles tendon load in recreational runners, Comparative Exercise Physiology, volume 11, issue 4, 2015, pages 239–244, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1755-2540 1755-2540], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/CEP150024 10.3920/CEP150024]</ref>
<ref name="MalisouxRamesh2015">L. Malisoux, J. Ramesh, R. Mann, R. Seil, A. Urhausen, D. Theisen, Can parallel use of different running shoes decrease running-related injury risk?, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, volume 25, issue 1, 2015, pages 110–115, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/09057188 09057188], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sms.12154 10.1111/sms.12154]</ref>
<ref name="FuFang2015">Weijie Fu, Ying Fang, David Ming Shuo Liu, Lin Wang, Sicong Ren, Yu Liu, Surface effects on in-shoe plantar pressure and tibial impact during running, Journal of Sport and Health Science, volume 4, issue 4, 2015, pages 384–390, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/20952546 20952546], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.09.001 10.1016/j.jshs.2015.09.001]</ref>
<ref name="Sinclair-2016">J. Sinclair, J. Richards, J. Selfe, J. Fau-Goodwin, H. Shore, The Influence of Minimalist and Maximalist Footwear on Patellofemoral Kinetics During Running., J Appl Biomech, Mar 2016, doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2015-0249 10.1123/jab.2015-0249], PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26959346 26959346]</ref>
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[[Category:Science]]
[[Category:Injury]]
