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* Training at Tempo paces is ineffective for trained athletes<ref name="Londeree-1997"/>, and may even be counterproductive<ref name="Evertsen-2001"/><ref name="Guellich-2010"/>.
* Training at lower intensity (blood lactate < 2 mmol/l) is more effective at improving performance at the Lactate Threshold than training at the Lactate Threshold (3-6 mmol/l)<ref name="Guellich-2010"/>.
* A 2007 randomly assigned 12 sub-elite 5K & cross country runners to one of two training programs<ref name="Esteve-Lanao-2007"/>. The Z1 program had 80% LSD, 10% Tempo, and 10% HIIT, whereas the Z2 program had 65% LSD, 25% Tempo, and 10% HIIT. The Z1 group that did less time at Tempo pace improved their race performance more than the Z2 group. (Their simulated 10K times improved 35 seconds more, 157 second improvement rather than 121 second improvement.)
* A 2009 review of the science of training intensity noted that recreational runners typically fall into a "black hole" of too much Lactate Threshold running<ref name="Seiler-2009"/>. They noted "''Training intended to be longer and slower becomes too fast and shorter in duration, and interval training fails to reach the desired intensity. The result is that most training sessions end up being performed at the same threshold intensity''."
* The performance of elite 5k/10K runners is related to total time spend in low intensity training, not higher intensities<ref name="Esteve-Lanao-2005"/>.
* Polarized training has been shown to be more effective than high volume/low intensity, threshold/tempo, or [[High Intensity Interval Training]]<ref name="StögglSperlich2014"/>. The polarized training used two [[High Intensity Interval Training]] and two long (150-240 minute) low intensity sessions.
* It has been observed that elite athletes exercise 80% of the time at low intensity (blood lactate < 2 mmol/l) and 20% of the time at Lactate Threshold or [[High Intensity Interval Training]]<ref name="Seiler-2010"/>. (Sadly this study did not have any breakdown between Lactate Threshold or [[High Intensity Interval Training]].)
* A 1991 study of elite runners found that they spent little of their time training at lactate threshold, something that was then considered sub-optimal<ref name="Robinson-1991"/>. Note that this is in spite of the prevalent belief of coaches in the value of Lactate Threshold training.
* A study of rowers before the world championship found they spent the majority of their time in the rowing equivalent of Long Slow Distance (<2 mmol/l) with 4-10% of [[High Intensity Interval Training]] (6-12 mmol/l) and no training at Lactate Threshold<ref name="Steinacker-1998"/>.
* An analysis of the training of elite junior cross-country skiers found they spent 75% of their time at low intensity, 17% at high intensity, and only 8% around Lactate Threshold<ref name="Seiler-2006"/>. The study concluded "It appears that elite endurance athletes train surprisingly little at the lactate threshold intensity."
* There is anecdotal evidence of two world class athletes that improved their performance after de-emphasizing threshold training<ref name="Seiler-2009"/>.
=Why Are Tempo Runs Ineffective?=
The science does not give us a clear answer as to why Tempo runs are relatively ineffective. My personal guess is that Tempo pace is still mostly aerobic, so it has similar benefits to running at a slow pace, but it can't be kept up so long. [[High Intensity Interval Training]] probably has dramatically different benefits to Tempo or [[Long Run| Long Slow Distance]]. There is a common claim that Tempo runs have mental benefits, but the scientific evidence does not bear that out in real world performance improvements.
=References=
<references>
<ref name="Seiler-2006">KS. Seiler, GØ. Kjerland, Quantifying training intensity distribution in elite endurance athletes: is there evidence for an "optimal" distribution?, Scand J Med Sci Sports, volume 16, issue 1, pages 49-56, Feb 2006, doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00418.x 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00418.x], PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430681 16430681]</ref>
<ref name="Higdon2005">author Hal Higdon, Marathon: The Ultimate Training Guide, date 3 September 2005, publisher Rodale, isbn 978-1-59486-199-4, page 151</ref>
<ref name="JackDaniels2015">Threshold Training, http://www.runnersworld.com/race-training/threshold-training, Accessed on 11 August 2015</ref>
<ref name="StögglSperlich2014">Thomas Stöggl, Billy Sperlich, Polarized training has greater impact on key endurance variables than threshold, high intensity, or high volume training, Frontiers in Physiology, volume 5, 2014, ISSN [http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1664-042X 1664-042X], doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00033 10.3389/fphys.2014.00033]</ref>
<ref name="Seiler-2010">S. Seiler, What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes?, Int J Sports Physiol Perform, volume 5, issue 3, pages 276-91, Sep 2010, PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20861519 20861519]</ref>
<ref name="Robinson-1991">DM. Robinson, SM. Robinson, PA. Hume, WG. Hopkins, Training intensity of elite male distance runners., Med Sci Sports Exerc, volume 23, issue 9, pages 1078-82, Sep 1991, PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1943629 1943629]</ref>
<ref name="Steinacker-1998">JM. Steinacker, W. Lormes, M. Lehmann, D. Altenburg, Training of rowers before world championships., Med Sci Sports Exerc, volume 30, issue 7, pages 1158-63, Jul 1998, PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9662689 9662689]</ref>
<ref name="Esteve-Lanao-2007">J. Esteve-Lanao, C. Foster, S. Seiler, A. Lucia, Impact of training intensity distribution on performance in endurance athletes., J Strength Cond Res, volume 21, issue 3, pages 943-9, Aug 2007, doi [http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/R-19725.1 10.1519/R-19725.1], PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17685689 17685689]</ref>
<ref name="Seiler-2009">Seiler, Stephen, and Espen Tønnessen. "Intervals, thresholds, and long slow distance: the role of intensity and duration in endurance training." Sportscience 13 (2009): 32-53.</ref>
</references>
